And for multiple aggregations over columns, with. FILTER Function in DAX. The FILTER function often used to filter rows of a table . The Filter function keeps the columns untouched, and it just reduces the number of rows based on filter. FILTER steps through the TableToFilter one row at a time. And for each row, it evaluates the FilterExpression. In Southeast Asia, many forests have been cut down to produce timber and to clear land for farms and industries. The destruction of forests has reduced the living space of wildlife. Much of Asia's wildlife is also threatened by over-hunting. Many people kill animals for food or hunt them to sell to zoos, medical researchers, and pet traders. Communities in four Southeast Asian countries — Indonesia, Vietnam, Cambodia and the Philippines — have been leading efforts to protect and restore degraded forests and return their function of storing emissions amid the climate crisis. Kharishar Kahfi, Mai Hoang, Joe Patchett, Gaea Cabico and Siti Isnawati March 18, 2021. Read the full answer Tropical rainforests are mainly located between the latitudes of 23.5°N (the Tropic of Cancer) and 23.5°S (the Tropic of Capricorn)—the tropics. Tropical rainforests are found in Central and South America, western and central Africa, western India, Southeast Asia, the island of New Guinea, and Australia. With high carbon density, the forests of Southeast Asia have been a critical focus of programs such as REDD (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and land Degradation), which is designed to incentivize forest conservation by transferring funds from developed to developing countries for carbon storage and ecosystem services that we all benefit Deforestation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo has been caused partly by unregulated logging and mining, but mostly by the demands made by the subsistence activities of a poor population. In the east of the country, for example, more than 3 million people live less than a day's walk from Virunga National Park.Wood from the park's forests is used by many of those people as firewood HxQp. TEST 1 Read the passage, then choose the correct answers In Southeast Asia, many forests have been cut down to produce timber and to clear land for farms and industries. The destruction of forests has reduced the habitat of wildlife. Much of Asia’s wildlife is also threatened by poaching. Many people kill animals for food or hunt them to sell to zoos, medical researchers, and pet traders. Because of habitat destruction and poaching, many large Asian animals, including elephants, rhinoceroses, and tigers, have become endangered. In China, people have cut down most of the forests for wood, which has caused serious soil erosion. The soil is deposited in rivers and streams, which lowers the quality of the water. The Hwang Ho, or Yellow River, is so named because the light-coloured soil gives the water a yellowish colour. The soil has also raised the riverbed. As a result, the Hwang Ho often floods, causing great property damage and loss of life along its banks. Câu 1 The habitat of wildlife in Southeast Asia A. has been reduced when forests are cut down B. is near farms and industries C. is rebuilt when people destroy forests D. is a threat to farmers Câu 2 Rhinoceroses and elephants are mentioned as examples of …………………… A. animals attracted to medical researchers B. endangered animals in Asia C. animals traders want to have D. large animals kept in zoos Câu 3 The HwangHo…………………… A. has its name from the colour of its water B. is a deep river in China C. received soil which betters the quality of water D. runs between forests Câu 4 The Hwang Ho often floods because …………………… A. water from many streams flows into it B. the soil is deposited on its banks C. of its water colour D. the river is shallow due to the raised riverbed Câu 5 The word “poaching” has the closest meaning to…………………… A. raising animals B. illegal hunting C. studying animals D. legal hunting Choose the word whose underlined part is pronounced differently from the rest Câu 6 A. extinct B. destroy C. endanger D. respect Câu 7 A. service B. transfer C. subscribe D. noisy Câu 8 A. nature B. spacious C. danger D. capture Choose the word whose stress pattern is different from that of the others Câu 9 A. conservation B. population C. environment D. entertainment Câu 10 A. condition B. animal C. survival D. pollutant Câu 11 A. facsimile B. telegram C. particular D. capacity Choose A, B, C, or D that best completes each unfinished sentence Câu 12 Water power gives us energy ……………………… pollution. A. of B. in C. with D. without Câu 13 Geothermal energy is produced from the heat stored in ……………………… earth’s core. A. a B. no article C. the D. an Câu 14 Laws should be ……………………… to stop people from cutting trees for wood. A. encouraged B. released C. introduced D. established Câu 15 In Vietnam, many species have become ……………………… due to the irresponsible activities of people. A. dangerous B. danger C. endanger D. endangered Câu 16 The woman ……………………… we are talking is a professor. A. whom B. who C. about whom D. from whom Câu 17 This is the bus. ………………………we’ll go to school. A. from which B. in that C. by which D. on which Câu 18 The mother ……………………… son was caught by the police was very sad. A. whom B. which C. whose D. who Câu 19 Peter, ……………………… lives about three miles away, was my former teacher. A. whose B. who C. whom D. that Câu 20 The woman ……………………… you mentioned is our director. A. why B. whose C. whom D. which Câu 21 He is the youngest athlete ………………………the prize in this field. A. to win B. won C. winning D. to be won Câu 22 Listener is a person ……………………… to the concert or music program. A. listened B. listening C. being listened D. to listen Câu 23 A new drug ……………………… at a British university may give the patients hope for life. A. developing B. developed C. to develop D. being develop Choose the one answer A, B, C, or D which best fits the space Câu 24 Nam Personally, I believe wind power is cheap, clean and safe. Hoa ………………………………, but if the wind doesn’t blow, there is no wind energy. A. That’s might be true B. No matter what C. Don’t mention it D. You’re welcome Câu 25 “Could you tell me how to get to the post office?” “………………………………” A. Excuse me. Is it easy to get there? B. Sorry, it’s not very far. C. Yes, I could D. It’s at the end of this street, opposite the church Choose the most suitable option to complete the passage By 1984, nonrenewable 26 ……………… fuels, such as oil, coal and natural gas, provided over 82 percent of the commercial and industrial energy 27……………… in the world. Small amounts of energy were 28 ……………… from nuclear fission, and the remaining 16 percent came from burning direct perpetual and renewable fuels 29.………………… biomass. Between 1700 and 1986, a large number of countries shifted from the use of energy from local sources to a centralized generation of hydropower and solar energy converted to electricity. The energy derived from nonrenewable fossil fuels has been increasingly produced in one location and transported to another, as in the case with most automobile fuels. In countries with private, rather than public transportation, the age of nonrenewable fuels has created a dependency on a finite 30 ……………. that will have to be replaced. Câu 26 A. solid B. clean C. fossil D. unleaded Câu 27 A. produced B. supplied C. used D. stored Câu 28 A. extracted B. produced C. released D. derived Câu 29 A. therefore B. for C. such as D. as Câu 30 A. resource B. power C. material D. reserve Choose the underlined part among A, B, c or D that needs correcting Câu 31 Thank you for you letter, in that you invited me to your birthday party. A B C D Câu 32 Many species have become extinction because of the interferences of human beings. A B C D Câu 33 Human beings have a greatly influence on the rest of the world. A B C D Câu 34 They are talking with Mai, her house is next to mine. A B C D Câu 35 The play which we listened on the radio last night was about social crimes. A B C D Choose the correct sentence among A, B, C or D which has the same meaning as the given one Câu 36 We didn’t want to swim in the river. It looked very dirty. A. We didn’t want to swim in the river, in which looked very dirty. B. We didn’t want to swim in the river, that looked very dirty. C. We didn’t want to swim in the river, which looked very dirty. D. We didn’t want to swim in the river, where looked very dirty. Câu 37 Nam refused to go to the cinema with me. He hated action films. A. Nam, that hated action films, refused to go to the cinema with me. B. Nam, whose hated action films, refused to go to the cinema with me. C. Nam, of whom hated action films, refused to go to the cinema with me. D. Nam, who hated action films, refused to go to the cinema with me. Câu 38 The police caught the burglar climbing over the garden wall. A. The burglar who was climbing over the garden wall was caught by the police. B. The police caught the burglar and they climbed over the garden wall. C. The police caught the burglar who is climbing over the garden wall. D. The police were catching the burglar who was climbing over the garden wall. Câu 39 The boy is standing in the yard. He was punished by his teacher. A. The boy who stands in the yard was punished by his teacher. B. The boy punished by his teacher is standing in the yard. C. Standing in the yard, the teacher punished the boy. D. The teacher who punished the boy is standing in the yard. Câu 40 The man wasn’t friendly. I spoke to him yesterday. A. The man to whom I speak yesterday wasn’t friendly. B. The man whom I spoke yesterday wasn’t friendly. C. The man to whom I spoke yesterday wasn’t friendly. D. The man to who I spoke yesterday wasn’t friendly. Identify one underlined word or phrase that is incorrect 41. These pictures, as well as this photograph , brightens the room. A B C D 42. What he said you seems to be of no importance. A B C D 43. Measles are cured without much difficulty nowadays. A B C D 44. If they had left the house early, they wouldn’t have been so late at the play. A B C D 45. Romeo, believing that Juliet was dead, decided to kill him. A B C D Complete the following sentences by filling in each blank with an appropriate relative pronoun who, whom, which, that. there anything………..I can do to help? 47. One of the people………were arrested was Mary. 48. The professor………..I talked to didn’t know the answer to my question. 49. A child …….mother loves him or her will grow up with confidence. 50. Many people just couldn’t keep promises…………require a lot of effort to fulfill. TEST 2 Choose the word that has the underlined part pronounced differently from that of the others. 1. A. facsimile B. transfer C. spacious D. fax 2. A. ready B. friend C. telephone D. speedy 3. A. subscribe B. facsimile C. pride D. provide 4. A. spacious B. courteous C. document D. technology 5. A. commune B. security C. punctuality D. distribute Choose the word or phrase, A, B, C, or D, that best completes the sentence or substitutes for the underlined word or phrase. 6. You can subscribe to your favorite newspapers and magazines...... the nearest post office.. A. in B. on C. from D. at 7. He is very capable...... learning and understanding things. A. with B. of C. at D. about 8. Thanh Ba Post Office provides customers...... the Messenger Call Services. A. with B. for C. of D. to 9. The post office offers the...... Mail Service which is particularly fast. A. Secure B. Efficient C. Express D. Reliable 10. We are proud of our...... staff, who are always friendly and efficient. A. well-done B. well-appointed C. well-behaved D. well-trained 11. The hotel staff are always friendly and courteous. A. efficient B. polite C. helpful D. perfect 12. I need to...... £1,000 to my daughter's account. A. transfer B. transform C. transmit D. transact 13. I'd like to send this parcel express. What's the..... on it? A. cost B. price C. postage D. value 14. We..... to several sports channels on television. A. subscribe B. deliver C. offer D. notify 15. We offer a very..... rate for parcels of under 15 kg. A. competing B. competent C. competitive D. competition 16. If you want to send a document and do not want to lose, its original shape, our..... service will help you. A. express mail B. facsimile C. messenger call D. postal 17...... of all the staff, I would like to wish you a happy retirement. A. On behalf B. In place C. Instead D. On account 18. '..... send this document to my office by fax?' 'Certainly.' A. Would you like B. Would you mind C. Could you D. Why not 19. I'm anxious _______ Tom. His plane is overdue. A. in B. about C. for D. of 20. "I agree that Bob looks ridiculous since he shaved his head, but don't make fun ______ him or you'll hurt his feelings." A. at B. over C. of D. on 21. Students are encouraged to take part _______ the discussion. A. to B. on C. for D. in 22. I'm very interested _________ English literature. A. in B. to C. of D. with the teacher entered the room, all the students stood _________. A. of B. up C. by D. down present, scientists are trying to find out the most suitable energy. a. In b. For c. At d. On 25. Nuclear power can provide us ______great source of energy. a. for b. on c. with d. at 26. Do you know where this kind of energy comes ____? a. up b. from c. on d. in sun releases large amounts _______ energy every day. a. for b. in c. for d. of 28. The solar energy can change _____ electricity. a. to b. for c. with d. into Read the text and do the task that follows. SOLAR LIGHTING Throughout the 1900s, the use of the sun as a source of energy has evolved considerably. Early in the century, the sun was the primary source of interior light for buildings during the day. Eventually, however, the cost, convenience, and performance of electric lamps improved and the 'sun was displaced as our primary method of lighting building interiors. Attempts to use sunlight directly for interior lighting via lens collectors, reflective light-pipes, and fiber-optic bundles were the next step. The most recent technology, hybrid solar lighting, collects sunlight and routs it through optical fibers into buildings where it is combined with electric light in "hybrid" light fixtures. Sensors keep the room at a steady lighting level by adjusting the electric lights based on the sunlight available. This new generation of solar lighting combines both electric and solar power. Hybrid solar lighting pipes sunlight directly to the light fixture and no energy conversions are necessary, therefore the process is much more efficient. It is currently being developed and tested by Oak Ridge National Laboratory in collaboration with the Department of Energy and several industry partners. Choose the most suitable answers. 29. The use of the sun as a source of energy has evolved A. throughout the 19th century B. in 1900 C. for some centuries D. throughout the 20th century 30. In the late 20th century, the sun, our main way of lighting building interiors during the day, was replaced by ____. A. fiber-optic bundles B. electric lamps C. lens collectors D. reflective light-pipes 31. All of the following are mentioned as parts of the most recent technology for using sunlight for interior lighting EXCEPT A. optical fibers B. sensors C. adaptors D. hybrid light fixtures 32. The process of piping sunlight to the light fixture _ A. is direct B. needs an energy converter C. is not very efficient D. is fairly expensive 33. The process is now A. widely used B. sponsored by the Department of Energy C. under the strict control of the Government D. being researched and tested Fill in the blanks with the correct answers. Have you 34_____________used a magnifying glass to make something melt or burn? If yes, you were using solar power! "Solar" is the Latin word for "sun" - and it's a powerful 35________________of energy. 36_____________, the sunlight that shines on the Earth in just one hour could meet world energy demand 37________________an entire year! We can use solar power in two different ways as a heat source, and as an energy source. People 38___________the sun as a heat source for thousands of years. Families in ancient Greece built their homes to get the most sunlight 39_____________the cold winter months. In the 1830s, explorer John Herschel used a solar collector to cook food during an adventure in Africa. You can even try this at home! 40___________we can use solar collectors for heating water and air in our homes. If you've seen a house with big shiny panels 41____________, that family is using solar power. 34. A. wondered B. yet C. never D. ever 35. A. source B. origin C. mine D. root 36. A. In deed B. In fact C. In spite of D. In addition to 37. A. over B. with C. as D. for 38. A. were using B. has used C. have used D. had used 39. A. about B. on C. during D. through 40. A. As a result B. Besides C. Yet D. However 41. A. on the top B. on the roof C. on the bottom D. on the peak Identify one underlined word or phrase that is incorrect 41. The picture of the soldiers bring back many memories. A B C B 42. If the duties of these officers isn’t reduced, there will not be enough time to finish it. A B C D 43. Either Bill nor Mary is going to the play tonight. A B C D 44. A number of reporters was at the conference yesterday. A B C D Complete the following sentences by filling in each blank with an appropriate relative pronoun who, whom, which, that. was invited by the girl……..I met at Ethel’s birthday party. 46. We went to the restaurant…….Jane recommended to us. walls are all………..remain of the city. received an offer of 80,000 USD for the house, ………we accepted. man……..wife you met lives next door. 50. Is there anything………..I can do to help? This is a preview. Log in through your library. Preview Journal Information The Journal of Southeast Asian Studies is one of the principal outlets for scholarly articles on Southeast Asia Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, East Timor, Singapore, Thailand and Vietnam. Embracing a wide range of academic disciplines in the humanities and social sciences, the journal publishes manuscripts oriented toward a scholarly readership but written to be accessible to non-specialists. The extensive book review section includes works in Southeast Asian languages. Publisher Information Cambridge University Press is the publishing division of the University of Cambridge, one of the world’s leading research institutions and winner of 81 Nobel Prizes. Cambridge University Press is committed by its charter to disseminate knowledge as widely as possible across the globe. It publishes over 2,500 books a year for distribution in more than 200 countries. Cambridge Journals publishes over 250 peer-reviewed academic journals across a wide range of subject areas, in print and online. Many of these journals are the leading academic publications in their fields and together they form one of the most valuable and comprehensive bodies of research available today. For more information, visit New research has found that the tropical forests in the mountains of Southeast Asia are losing trees at an accelerated rate, deepening a wide range of ecological concerns. Southeast Asia is home to about 15% of the world’s tropical forests and help sustain plant and animal biodiversity. The trees also store carbon, keeping it out of the atmosphere where it would further contribute to warming global temperatures. But clearing the forests of trees has reduced the ecosystem’s capacity for carbon storage, according to a study recently published in Nature Sustainability. In many parts of the world, people have cleared out forests to make space for subsistence agriculture and cash crops. In Southeast Asia, illegal logging is also responsible for a huge amount of deforestation. As forests shrink, their ability to counteract human carbon emissions dwindles. “We know there is substantial deforestation on mountains [in Southeast Asia], but we didn’t know if it was increasing and how it affected carbon,” said Zhenzhong Zeng, an earth system scientist at Southern University of Science and Technology in China and a co-author of the study. “Now, we find that it’s increasing.” The researchers used satellite images to track forest loss over time and carbon density maps to calculate corresponding reductions in carbon storage capacity. Their results showed that Southeast Asia has lost 61 million hectares of forest over the last 20 years. In the 2000s, the annual loss was about an average of 2 million hectares a year. Between 2010 to 2019, that number doubled to about 4 million hectares a year. “I think what’s surprising is just the rate that it’s occurring at, and not the fact that it is occurring,” said Alan Ziegler, a physical geographer at Mae Jo University in Thailand and another co-author of the study. About a third of trees cleared were in mountainous regions such as northern Laos, northeastern Myanmar and the Indonesian islands Sumatra and Kalimantan, the study found. Experts previously thought that these trees, protected by rugged mountain landscape, would be less affected by human intervention compared to trees found in flatter lowlands. But the study found that with cultivatable lowlands growing more limited, forest clearance has expanded into the mountains. In 2001, mountain trees made up about 24% of all trees cleared that year. By 2019, it was over 40%. FILE - A view of Khao Yai National Park, 130 kilometers north of Bangkok, Thailand, March 22, 2021. “I think it’s innovative, the way they look at how [forest loss] shifts from lowland areas to the mountain areas,” said Nophea Sasaki, who studies forest carbon monitoring at Asian Institute of Technology in Thailand and was not involved in the study. “I think that’s a great concern.” Forests at higher elevation and on steeper slopes tend to store more carbon than lowland forests, according to the study. If people are clearing out more mountain trees, then the forests could lose even more carbon than current climate change models predict. If land is set aside, trees can regrow and restore their carbon stocks. But the natural habitats forests support and the great biodiversity they contain may be lost forever. Species unique to the region could disappear. The forests’ protection of watersheds and flood prevention capacity may also vanish. “It’s not only about carbon. In terms of environmental destruction on a long-term basis, it would destroy nature. It would destroy all biodiversity,” Sasaki said. Complicating the picture is inconsistent monitoring and enforcement of forest protection between countries and states. Experts say advances in technology, such as the satellite data used in this study, and public attention on the issue will be important for closer monitoring and prevention of forest loss. “We should be obligated to protect the forest because without these forests, we cannot survive,” Sasaki said. Most tropical rainforest in Asia is found in Indonesia on scattered islands, the Malay peninsula Malaysia, Thailand, Myanmar, and Laos and Cambodia. Forest once covered a much greater area in Asia, but logging and clearing of forests for agriculture has destroyed much of the region's rainforests. The loss of rainforests has caused many problems in Asia. For example, during the 2004 tsunami disaster damage was worse in areas that had suffered heavy deforestation. The burning of forests for land clearing also causes air pollution. Southeast Asia's rainforests are some of the oldest on Earth. Some scientists believe that forests in present-day Malaysia may have existed over 100 million years ago. Some southeast Asian forests are known for their orangutans, tigers, and elephants. On the island of Sumatra, rhinos, tigers, orangutans, and elephants can be found living in the same forest Ὰ the only place on Earth where this is the case. Map showing the Asian rainforests. Click to enlarge. Statistics on tropical forest cover and loss in Asia-Pacific including Australia CountryPrimary forest extent2020million hectaresPrimary forest loss2010-2019Tree cover extent2020million hectaresTree cover change2010-2019 Papua New Sri Solomon Annoyed by these ads? Use the advertising-free version of Mongabay-Kids. Previous Next Review questions Additional resources Loading metrics Open Access Peer-reviewed Research Article Takuya Furukawa , Riyou Tsujino, Shumpei Kitamura, Takakazu Yumoto Factors affecting forest area change in Southeast Asia during 1980-2010 Nobuo Imai, Takuya Furukawa, Riyou Tsujino, Shumpei Kitamura, Takakazu Yumoto x Published May 15, 2018 Figures AbstractWhile many tropical countries are experiencing rapid deforestation, some have experienced forest transition FT from net deforestation to net reforestation. Numerous studies have identified causative factors of FT, among which forest scarcity has been considered as a prerequisite for FT. In fact, in SE Asia, the Philippines, Thailand and Viet Nam, which experienced FT since 1990, exhibited a lower remaining forest area 30±8% than the other five countries 68±6%, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, and Myanmar where forest loss continues. In this study, we examined 1 the factors associated with forest scarcity, 2 the proximate and/or underlying factors that have driven forest area change, and 3 whether causative factors changed across FT phases from deforestation to net forest gain during 1980–2010 in the eight SE Asian countries. We used production of wood, food, and export-oriented food commodities as proximate causes and demographic, social, economic and environmental factors, as well as land-use efficiency, and wood and food trade as underlying causes that affect forest area change. Remaining forest area in 1990 was negatively correlated with population density and potential land area of lowland forests, while positively correlated with per capita wood production. This implies that countries rich in accessible and productive forests, and higher population pressures are the ones that have experienced forest scarcity, and eventually FT. Food production and agricultural input were negatively and positively correlated, respectively, with forest area change during 1980–2009. This indicates that more food production drives deforestation, but higher efficiency of agriculture is correlated with forest gain. We also found a U-shaped response of forest area change to social openness, suggesting that forest gain can be achieved in both open and closed countries, but deforestation might be accelerated in countries undergoing societal transition. These results indicate the importance of environmental, agricultural and social variables on forest area dynamics, and have important implications for predicting future tropical forest change. Citation Imai N, Furukawa T, Tsujino R, Kitamura S, Yumoto T 2018 Factors affecting forest area change in Southeast Asia during 1980-2010. PLoS ONE 135 e0197391. Krishna Prasad Vadrevu, University of Maryland at College Park, UNITED STATESReceived January 5, 2018; Accepted May 1, 2018; Published May 15, 2018Copyright © 2018 Imai et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are Availability All relevant data are within the paper and its Supporting Information This study was financially supported by the Environment Research and Technology Development Fund S9-1 of the Ministry of the Environment, Japan, and the “International Program of Collaborative Research” funded by the Center for Southeast Asian Studies CSEAS, Kyoto University to NI, and the "Project to support activities for promoting REDD+ by private companies and nongovernmental organizations" funded by the Forestry Agency of Japan to TF. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the interests The authors have declared that no competing interests exist. IntroductionAlteration of land use is one of the major causes of global environmental change which is driving species to extinction and emitting increasing amount of green-house gases. In particular, global deforestation rate is still alarmingly high[1], and the tropics are the only biome to exhibit an increasing trend of forest cover loss in the 21st-century[2]. Deforestation and forest degradation in the tropics are responsible for 7–14% of anthropogenic carbon emissions[3] and pose one of the greatest threats to global biodiversity[4]. Therefore, reducing tropical deforestation and even reversing the trend to net forest gain are top priorities of global environmental policy. While many tropical countries are experiencing ongoing deforestation, some have gone through a transition from net deforestation to net reforestation, as known as “forest transition FT”[5]. The FT hypothesis explains forest recovery as a result of abandonment of marginal agricultural land followed by forest regeneration, as well as tree plantation[6][7][8]. Economic development is almost a prerequisite of FT[9][10][11][12][13][14][15], but different pathways have been suggested on how it affects forest recovery. The wealth brought by economic development would enable tropical countries to be financially comfortable enough to invest in reforestation schemes[16] or import wood and food products from other countries while preserving its own forest[13][14][17][18] [19][20]. Economic development may also change the demographic pattern of a country decrease in rural population with the increase in urban population through the increase in off-farm employment, which leads to cropland abandonment[5]. Improvement in agricultural productivity is also suggested to encourage abandonment of marginal croplands[21]. Although it may not be a direct result of economic development, democratic societies[22][23][24] or countries with better governance[15][25][26] are suggested to show less deforestation and/or more forest recovery. Despite the diversity of socio-economic factors that have been suggested to be related to FT, most studies have employed a limited number of factors in their analysis. Additionally, various environmental conditions, such as precipitation, temperature, vegetation, and topography, are known to affect forest area change at the local to subnational scales[27][28][29], but their effects have rarely been incorporated in national-scale studies. Exhaustion of forest resources is also considered as a prerequisite of a country to experience FT. When forests become scarce, the need for forest conservation is realized with rising price of forest products, or forest protection is promoted in order to restore the deteriorated forest ecosystem services[30][31][32]. Rudel et al. 2005[31] pointed out that this “forest scarcity pathway” could be more prominent in densely populated Asian countries, compared to less populous Latin American countries. In southeast Asia, forest area stopped to decline in Thailand and increased in the Philippines and Viet Nam since 1990, but the other five SE Asian countries experienced forest loss during 1980–2010 Fig 1[1][33]. The three FT countries Philippines, Thailand and Viet Nam exhibited lower remaining forest area 30±8%, mean±SD compared to the other five SE Asian countries 68±6%, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, and Myanmar as of 1990 Fig 1. This implies that forest scarcity per se may have led to FT in the three countries. Although the pattern and processes of FT in the three countries have been well studied[6][14] [34][35][36], clarifying why the three particular countries, but not the other five countries, have already exhausted their forest resources and experienced FT would lead to a better understanding of the entering point of the forest scarcity pathway. Grainger[7] suggested that, during the FT process, mechanisms underlying the deforestation phase and the subsequent reforestation phase are not identical. However, recent studies reported that factors associated with forest area change are consistent during both deforestation and reforestation phases, while relative importance of each factor varied among phases[15][37]. This implies that there might be a common mechanism across the FT phases, in which a socio-economic factor might initially accelerate deforestation, but then encourage reforestation. Such process could be a key to not only reduce deforestation but also enhance forest recovery. SE Asia used to experience the fastest rate of deforestation among the tropics especially until the 1990s[38]. Smallholders supported by recolonization programs by the state were considered the main driver of deforestation up to the 1980s, but their role was replaced by private enterprise agriculture until the 1990s[39]. Deforestation continued during the 1990s and 2000s in the region but with a slower rate because of reversing trends in forest area in Thailand, the Philippines, and Viet Nam Fig 1[1]. Displacement of deforestation to other countries through timber imports played a big role to achieve forest recovery in Viet Nam[34][35]. Expansion of oil-palm plantation has been one of the major causes of deforestation in Indonesia and Malaysia during this period[39][40]. In Myanmar, commercial agricultural concession, timber extraction and infrastructure development, underlain by international investment, civil war and weak land tenure, were identified as the major drivers of deforestation[41]. To elucidate the general process of FT in SE Asia, we employed 33 socio-economic factors pertaining to proximate production of wood, food, wood and food aggregated, and export-oriented food commodities and underlying causes demographic, social, economic and environmental factors, as well as land-use efficiency, and wood and food trade of deforestation in eight SE Asian countries at the national scale during 1980–2010. We also examined the relationship between percentage forest area and these causative factors in 1990 to understand the conditions leading to forest scarcity. We addressed three specific questions; 1 what are the socio-economic conditions that lead a country to enter the forest scarcity pathway, 2 which proximate and/or underlying factors have the most significant impacts on forest area change, and 3 whether the relationship with the identified causative factors change across the FT phases from deforestation to net forest gain? Methods Data collection This study covered eight southeast Asian countries, namely, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Thailand and Viet Nam, encompassing 3 decades 1980–2009 divided into four periods 1980–1989, 1990–1999, 2000–2004 and 2005–2009. All countries were analyzed together to extract common mechanisms underlying the entering point of the forest scarcity pathway and the process across the FT phases. Data on remaining forest area % and the rate of change in forest area % yr-1 were obtained from the Global Forest Resources Assessment FRA data on the 1980s were from FRA 1990[33] and data on the 1990s and onward were from FRA 2010[1]. FRA’s forest area data have been criticized for being variable in quality across countries and for inconsistencies in definitions[42], but it remains the sole comprehensive source of national deforestation rates prior to 2000 see Hansen et al. 2013[2]. We used data on wood and food production as the proximate causes of forest area change. Instead of using production volume, we converted the values into per capita land area required to produce the products km2 person-1 yr-1 in order to account for the difference in land use impacts difference in land area required to produce the same volume of different products. Details of the calculation process is provided in Kastner et al. 2014[43] and the Supporting Information S1 Text. This calculation enabled us to directly compare and aggregate the production impact of different wood and food products under the same unit. Wood production covered industrial roundwood including derived products. Food production encompassed almost 450 crops and livestock products, including ten major crops and two groups of commodity crops of interest, namely, oil palm and stimulants coffee and cocoa. As for the underlying driving forces of forest area change, we considered demographic, economic, social, and environmental variables, as well as land-use efficiency, and wood and food trade. Demographic variables included population density person km-2, rural, urban and total annual population growth rates % yr-1, and percentage of urban population Panels a-d in S7 Fig. Economic variables included GDP per capita PPP adjusted, current international USD, GDP growth rate % yr-1, level of industrialization represented by the share of manufacturing industry % of GDP, headcount poverty ratio at USD per day % of population, forest rents % of GDP, total natural resources rents % of GDP, proportion of forest rents to total natural resources rents %, and the Human Development Index HDI, unitless Panels e-k in S7 Fig. Social variables included corruption and social openness Panels l and m in S2 Fig. The Corruption Perception Index CPI provided by Transparency International was used to represent corruption. Indices of polity and freedom, obtained from Polity IV regime authority characteristics and transitions datasets, INSCR and Freedom in the world, Freedom House respectively, were summarized based on principal component analysis PCA, and the score of its first axis was used to represent social openness. Land-use efficiency included the index of agricultural input unitless, cereal yield Hg ha-1, and the index of agricultural yield unitless Panels n-p in S2 Fig. Agricultural input was represented by the first axis of PCA among agricultural machines import, pesticides import and fertilizers consumption per unit agricultural area. Similarly, the yield values of major crops were summarized by PCA to represent agricultural yield. The self-sufficiency ratios SSR, unitless for wood, food, and wood and food aggregated were used as the indices of wood and food trade. The SSR was defined as The SSR was calculated based on land area required for wood and food production S3 Fig, and area associated with import/export of wood and food in the eight countries S4 and S5 Figs. Data on import/export values of food were obtained from Kastner et al. 2014[43], while those of wood were calculated based on various data sources see S1 Text. Environmental variables included remaining forest area at the beginning of each period %, median elevation m, total land area km2, and percentage land area of lowland tropical forests as potential natural vegetation %. Characteristics of climate and soil summarized based on PCA analyses S1 Text were also used in the analyses. All variables used in the analyses are listed in Table 1. The data sources and details of the calculation processes are described in S1 Text. Statistical analyses For all the 33 variables of proximate and underlying causes Table 1, we calculated the mean values in each of the four periods 1980–1989, 1990–1999, 2000–2004 and 2005–2009. We first examined the relationships between percentage forest area in 1990, when forest area in Philippines and Viet Nam began to increase Fig 1, and the remaining 32 variables in the 1980s by Pearson’s correlation analysis. We then examined the relationships between the rate of change in forest area % yr-1 and the 33 variables. As a result, 10 out of 33 variables had a significant correlation with forest area change in at least one of the four periods S7 Fig and S3 Table; see Results. To further analyze the strength of each of the 10 causative factors on the rate of change in forest area during the four periods, we examined the explanatory power of major variables based on multiple regression analyses. We considered wood and food production individually instead of their aggregated values, and excluded headcount poverty ratio since it was not available for Myanmar. We also considered squared terms for variables that changed their correlation coefficient between positive and negative over time expecting that the variables might have altered their relationship with forest area during FT. The multi-collinearity of explanatory variables was examined based on variance inflation factor VIF. Variables having VIF ≥ 10 were dropped with preferential omission of squared terms to avoid severe multi-collinearity[44], leaving a total of 8 explanatory variables of which only one was a squared term. The full model with all explanatory variables was defined as where ΔFAi is the rate of change in forest area, FPi is per capita area required for food production, WPi per capita area required for wood production, POPi is population density, URBi is proportion of urban population, SOPi is social openness, AGIi is agricultural input, and WSSRi is wood SSR. β1~9 represent model coefficients intercept and slopes, εi is the error term, and i depicts data from each country and time period. Model selection was based on Akaike information criterion for small sample sizes AICc[45]. For each candidate model, we calculated AICc weight which value adds to 1 representing the normalized likelihood of a model in the set of candidate models[46]. The relative importance of variables IOV; values ranging from 0 to 1 was calculated by adding the AICc weights of the models in which a variable was selected [46]. All statistical analyses were performed using R[47]. 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A new report has highlighted the maritime border zone between Indonesia, Malaysia and the Philippines as a hotbed for the illegal wildlife trade, and called for urgent intergovernmental action to protect this biodiversity hotspot at the apex of the Coral Triangle. Wildlife trade monitoring nonprofit TRAFFIC documented and analyzed the seizure of more than 25,000 live animals and more than 120,000 metric tons of wildlife, parts and plants from the illegal trade between June 2003 and September 2021 in the Sulu-Celebes seas region. “The sheer volume of hundreds of marine and terrestrial species poached and trafficked through this lesser-known seas is a wake-up call for action before it’s too late,” report co-author Serene Chng, senior program officer of TRAFFIC Southeast Asia, said in a statement. The communities that live alongside these seas have long had strong transboundary relationships and connections due to their shared cultures and engagement in local trade, often involving illegal, unreported and untaxed goods. TRAFFIC found the illegal wildlife trade through the Sulu and Celebes seas is primarily between the three Southeast Asian countries, rather than destined for other countries — though the arrests of some Chinese and Vietnamese nationals suggests some involvement by international syndicates. The smuggling of marine turtles — nearly all of which are endangered or critically endangered — is a major issue in the Sulu-Celebes seas region, with all three countries implicated in the trade. Image courtesy of TRAFFIC. Marine wildlife targeted TRAFFIC logged 452 confiscations of live animals and wildlife parts in the region, with the Philippines accounting for 239 53%, Malaysia 125 28% and Indonesia 88 19% of the cases. The incidents involved a diverse range of terrestrial and marine wildlife, with animals accounting for 89% of cases and plants the remaining 11%. Out of 119 incidents resulting in arrests, only 26 6% of total incidents led to documented convictions. However, TRAFFIC said the data on convictions were limited by gaps in reporting and recording. “Trade and enforcement levels constantly fluctuate and so many factors influence that,” said TRAFFIC Southeast Asia director Kanitha Krishnasamy. “But what the figures show is that the pressure on species is a constant.” The report found that species including marine turtles, giant clams, seahorses, sharks and rays — some threatened with extinction and banned from trade — are specifically targeted and frequently seized in large quantities, reflecting the alarming frequency of these illicit activities. Marine turtle smuggling is a major issue in the Sulu-Celebes seas region, accounting for 28% of all seizures, with much of this illicit trade conducted through in-person transactions rather than open online platforms. Marine turtle eggs constituted 95% of the seized marine turtle items, predominantly trafficked between the southern Philippines and Sabah, Malaysia, with Malaysia responsible for nearly 80% of the seizures. The eggs, believed to originate mainly from the Philippines’ Turtle Islands Wildlife Sanctuary, are destined for the bustling consumer market in Sabah, with the city of Sandakan identified as the main entry point for their illegal transport. A total of 409 shark and ray individuals, nearly metric tons of their meat, and almost 29,000 shark products were seized in 12 incidents, primarily in the Philippines, with one seizure reported in Malaysia. Except for two live pelagic thresher sharks Alopias pelagicus and three whale sharks Rhincodon typus — both endangered species whose trade is highly restricted — all the seized sharks and rays were dead individuals. The study also showed that land animals were not exempt from the clutches of smugglers, with frequent and significant seizures observed. For instance, parrots were often seized in Bitung on the Indonesian island of Sulawesi, with many originating from eastern regions of the country like Papua and Maluku. Seizure reports indicate Bitung is a potential consolidation point for selling these birds within Indonesia or to the Philippines. An endangered manta ray in Indonesian waters. TRAFFIC found that rays were the most commonly offered taxa for sale online in the region. Image by Anett Szaszi / Ocean Image Bank via The Ocean Agency. Online trade continues The illegal wildlife trade persists and thrives across online shopping platforms such as Lazada and Shopee, notably in Indonesia and Malaysia. After analyzing more than 600 posts related to sharks and rays, marine turtles and pangolins, TRAFFIC found that rays were the most commonly offered taxa for sale online in the region. A notable instance of online trade involved the sale of sharks and rays through livestreaming of Indonesian fish markets on Facebook. The videos showcased various species and their prices, with viewers engaging by commenting, asking questions, and bargaining prices. In Gorontalo, Sulawesi, an instance of stockpiling was observed, wherein online traders were found purchasing significant quantities of shark fins. Online trade of marine turtles was documented only in Indonesia, mainly in the form of carved bracelets and rings made from turtle shells. With the rise of online trade on social media and shopping platforms, TRAFFIC has called for increased attention from law enforcement agencies and tech companies. It also urged the governments of the three countries to employ existing traceability tools to combat wildlife trafficking, and to enhance regulations particularly concerning the legal trade of sharks and rays, which both play vital ecological roles within their respective food webs. Theresa Mundita Lim, executive director of the ASEAN Centre for Biodiversity ACB, pointed to findings of the February 2020 Red List Index for Southeast Asia, which revealed a steady increase in the rate of biodiversity loss in the region. She said the region faces a high risk of wild vertebrate extinction, especially among species targeted in the illegal trade, further exacerbated by the prevalence of online commerce. “While social media is being used in these illegal activities, it can also be the solution to such a worsening problem,” Lim told Mongabay. “Everyone can contribute to curbing such illegal transactions by reporting accounts that engage in illicit trade.” Fresh shark fins drying in Indonesia. A total of 409 shark and ray individuals, nearly metric tons of their meat, and shark products were seized in 12 incidents, primarily in the Philippines. Image by laurent KB via Flickr CC BY-NC-SA A call for cooperation Given the interconnected nature of the illegal wildlife trade and the low number of successful convictions, the TRAFFIC report emphasizes the importance of a holistic, regional approach to finding solutions, including increased interagency and transboundary cooperation. “At least 45 different agencies from these three countries made arrests and seizures, with over a quarter of incidents involving collaboration between multiple agencies within a country,” Chng said. “We’re keen to see and support more of these joint efforts at the regional level between countries.” Related podcast listening Banner image A green sea turtle. Marine turtle smuggling is a major issue in the Sulu-Celebes seas region, accounting for 28% of all seizures. Image by Amanda Cotton / The Ocean Agency. Study Paying fishers to ease off sharks and rays is cost-effective conservation Citations Armstrong, O. H., Wong, R., Lorenzo, A., Sidik, A., Sant, G., & Chng, S. 2023. Illegal wildlife trade Baseline for monitoring and law enforcement in the Sulu-Celebes Seas. TRAFFIC. Retrieved from Bornatowski, H., Navia, A. F., Braga, R. R., Abilhoa, V., & Corrêa, M. F. 2014. Ecological importance of sharks and rays in a structural foodweb analysis in southern Brazil. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 717, 1586-1592. doi FEEDBACK Use this form to send a message to the author of this post. If you want to post a public comment, you can do that at the bottom of the page. Article published by Conservation, Endangered Species, Environment, Environmental Law, Extinction, Fish, Fishing, Food, Food Industry, Illegal Fishing, Illegal Trade, Marine, Marine Animals, Marine Conservation, Marine Ecosystems, Oceans, Overfishing, Saltwater Fish, Sharks And Rays, Social Media, Wildlife, Wildlife Conservation, Wildlife Trade Print

in southeast asia many forests have been